Shang Yang's Legalist Reforms356 BCE

A series of sweeping administrative, military, and economic edicts promulgated by Shang Yang (Lord Shang / Wei Yang) under Duke Xiao, beginning with Shang Yang's arrival c. 359 BCE, the first formal reform edicts promulgated in 356 BCE and a second wave in 350 BCE, continuing through -338. Key measures: merit-based military promotion replacing hereditary rank, land redistribution and direct taxation, reorganization of the population into five-family mutual-liability groups, standardization of weights and measures, weakening of hereditary aristocracy, and strict Legalist law codes. These reforms transformed Qin from a peripheral feudal state into a centralized, militarized bureaucratic polity capable of sustained conquest. The primary Legalist texts behind these reforms survive in the Shangjunshu (Book of Lord Shang). Encoded as 'inscription' type: the reforms were issued as promulgated legal edicts and written codes.

Fall of Eastern Zhou — Qin Absorbs the Royal Domain256 BCE

Qin forces under King Zhaoxiang captured the Zhou royal capital Wangcheng (Luoyang area) and deposed King Nan, extinguishing the Zhou royal line after nearly 800 years. Qin absorbed the Zhou royal domain and its remaining ritual legitimacy. The last East Zhou mini-state was mopped up by 249 BCE. This event is distinct from the 221 BCE unification of the Warring States.

Construction of the Zhengguo Canal (郑国渠)246 BCE

Massive irrigation project in the Guanzhong plain, engineered by Zheng Guo (a hydraulic engineer reportedly sent by Han as a spy to divert Qin resources). The canal ran over 100 km along the northern foot of the Jing River, irrigating over 40,000 qing of farmland. Despite the alleged Trojan-horse motive, Qin completed and benefited enormously from the canal: it dramatically increased agricultural yields in the Qin heartland, providing logistical support for the imminent conquest campaigns. One of the most consequential infrastructure achievements of pre-imperial China.

Conquest of Han State230 BCE

First major conquest in Ying Zheng's unification wars; Qin general Neishi Teng defeated Han forces and captured the Han capital Xinzheng (modern Xinzheng, Henan). Han was the weakest of the six states and the closest to Qin's eastern border. Its conquest opened the route for attacking Zhao and began the systematic elimination of the Warring States.

Conquest of Zhao — Fall of Handan228 BCE

After a prolonged campaign, Qin forces under Wang Jian captured the Zhao capital Handan (modern Handan, Hebei) — the birthplace of Ying Zheng, where he had lived as a hostage. The Zhao king surrendered; a remnant Zhao resistance continued briefly at Dai before being crushed in -222. The fall of Zhao removed Qin's most formidable northern rival.

Conquest of Chu — Wang Jian's 600,000-Man Campaign223 BCE

The largest and arguably most decisive military campaign of the unification wars. After an initial ill-fated 200,000-man expedition under Li Xin was repulsed, Ying Zheng mobilized approximately 600,000 troops under the veteran general Wang Jian. After a prolonged war of attrition, Wang Jian destroyed the Chu army, captured the Chu king, and absorbed Chu's vast territories spanning modern Hubei, Hunan, and surrounding regions. Qin then pacified the Yue south coast in 222 BCE. Chu was Qin's strongest rival and its conquest made final unification inevitable.

Conquest of Qi and Final Unification — Qin Shi Huang Proclaimed221 BCE

Qin forces took the Qi capital Linzi without significant resistance — Qi had been isolated diplomatically and its forces were unprepared. With Qi's fall, all six former Warring States were absorbed. Ying Zheng unified China for the first time, abolished the feudal wang (king) title among the states, and proclaimed himself Qin Shi Huang (First August Emperor / 始皇帝), coining the compound title huangdi that all subsequent Chinese emperors would use. The Warring States period ended.

Imperial Standardization Decrees — Script, Weights, Measures, Currency221 BCE

Following unification, Qin Shi Huang and chief minister Li Si issued sweeping standardization edicts: a unified writing system (small seal script / xiaozhuan replacing regional script variants), standardized weights and measures, a single currency (the banliang round coin with square hole), and uniform road-axle widths to facilitate military and commercial logistics. Stone stelae inscribed with imperial proclamations were erected across the empire. These measures facilitated administrative integration of diverse former kingdoms. The Shuihudi legal texts (Hulsewé 1985) show the legal infrastructure behind these decrees.

Northern Xiongnu Campaign and Early Great Wall Linkage215 BCE

General Meng Tian led approximately 300,000 troops to seize the Ordos region from the Xiongnu nomadic confederation and pushed the northern frontier to the Yellow River bend. Existing state walls of Yan, Zhao, and Qin were connected and extended into the early Great Wall system (Wanli Changcheng), requiring massive corvée labor. Secured the northern frontier but required permanent heavy garrisoning. The wall-building campaign is commemorated in later sources as one of the Qin state's most burdensome undertakings.

Southern Baiyue Campaigns and Colonization214 BCE

After initial setbacks, Qin armies conquered the Baiyue peoples of the south, establishing three new commanderies: Nanhai (near modern Guangzhou), Guilin, and Xiang (modern Guangxi). Logistically supported by the Lingqu Canal (built c. -214 connecting the Xiang and Li rivers). Qin resettled exiles and convicts in the region. Extended Chinese cultural and administrative influence into modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and possibly northern Vietnam. The southern frontier reached its maximum Qin extent.

Burning of Books Decree213 BCE

At the instigation of chief minister Li Si, Qin Shi Huang ordered the burning of classical texts in private hands (excepting practical works on agriculture, medicine, and divination, plus copies retained in the imperial library). Scholars criticizing imperial policy from classical precedents were executed or exiled. Aimed at ideological conformity under Legalism and suppression of Confucian and other competing thought. The scale and thoroughness are debated by modern historians, but the decree symbolizes the authoritarian character of Qin rule. Encoded as 'inscription' type: the burning was enacted via an imperial edict/decree.

Death of Qin Shi Huang at Shaqiu210 BCE

Qin Shi Huang died during his fifth imperial inspection tour at Shaqiu (modern Pingxiang County, Hebei) in the summer of -210, possibly from mercury poisoning (he consumed mercury-based longevity pills) or other illness. Zhao Gao and Li Si suppressed news of his death, forged an edict forcing the legitimate heir Fusu to commit suicide, and installed the younger Huhai as Qin Er Shi. The cover-up and manipulated succession triggered the crisis that rapidly destroyed the empire.

Dazexiang Uprising — Chen Sheng and Wu Guang209 BCE

Chen Sheng and Wu Guang, conscript soldiers delayed by floods and facing execution for lateness under Qin law, led the first major popular revolt against Qin rule at Dazexiang (modern Anhui), declaring the state of Zhang Chu. Their uprising rapidly spread, inspiring former aristocrats and peasant leaders across the eastern commanderies to rebel. Though Chen Sheng's own revolt was crushed within months, it catalyzed the broader collapse of Qin authority across the empire and enabled the rise of Liu Bang and Xiang Yu as major contenders.

Ziying's Surrender and Sack of Xianyang206 BCE

Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang's forces outside Xianyang in -206, ending Qin rule. Shortly afterward, Xiang Yu entered Guanzhong with his Chu forces, executed Ziying, and burned the Qin palace complex (including the Epang Palace under construction). The sack of Xianyang destroyed much of the Qin imperial center. The subsequent Chu-Han contention (-206..-202) between Liu Bang and Xiang Yu resulted in Liu Bang founding the Han dynasty (-202 BCE).