Indus Valley – Mature Phase
c. 2600–1900 BCE
Overview
Peak urban civilization covering ~1.26 million km². Grid-planned cities, the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, standardized weights and an undeciphered script, with documented trade as far as Mesopotamia.
Indus Valley Civilization
One of the three earliest urban Bronze Age civilizations (alongside Mesopotamia and Egypt), spanning from Neolithic Mehrgarh (c. 7000 BCE) through five cultural phases to Post-Harappan ceramic traditions (c. 1000 BCE). At its Mature phase (2600–1900 BCE) it covered ~1.26 million km² with grid-planned cities, advanced sanitation, standardized baked bricks and weights, an undeciphered script, and extensive trade with Mesopotamia. Its apparent lack of palaces, royal tombs, and militarized iconography distinguishes it as more heterarchical than contemporary states. Climate-driven aridification of the Ghaggar-Hakra river system triggered progressive de-urbanization after 1900 BCE, leading to regional Late Harappan cultures and ultimately to the Ochre Coloured Pottery (a Chalcolithic successor culture, c. 2000–1300 BCE) and Painted Grey Ware traditions of the early Iron Age.
Territory Phases
Indus Valley – Mature Phase2600 BCE – 1900 BCE
Broader extent of Mature Harappan influence. Sparser settlement in Gujarat, upper Punjab foothills, and the eastern Ghaggar-Hakra paleochannel.
Indus Valley – Mature Phase2600 BCE – 1900 BCE
Dense urban core along the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra rivers. Planned cities with standardized weights, seals, script, and brick sizes.
Makran Coast Trade Route2600 BCE – 1900 BCE
Isolated coastal trading outposts connected by maritime trade. Not continuous settlement.
Key Events
Full urbanization and standardization across the Indus system2600 BCE
Mohenjo-daro, Sindh, Pakistan
Simultaneous rise of grid-planned cities with advanced drainage systems, standardized baked-brick sizes, uniform weights and measures, and a common undeciphered script across hundreds of sites stretching over 1.26 million km². Coincides with peak long-distance trade evidenced by Indus seals recovered in Mesopotamian contexts.
Construction of the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro2500 BCE
Mohenjo-daro, Sindh, Pakistan
Building of the iconic waterproof brick tank (the Great Bath) and raised citadel platform at Mohenjo-daro. The bath measures approximately 12 x 7 m with bitumen-sealed brickwork and is thought to have had civic or ritual functions. No royal iconography or palace accompanies it, exemplifying the heterarchical character of Harappan governance.
Peak of maritime and overland trade networks2350 BCE
Lothal, Gujarat, India
Establishment of dockyards and bead factories at Lothal and related Gujarat sites for export of carnelian, cotton, and lapis lazuli. Indus-style seals found in Akkadian and Sumerian contexts at Ur and Lagash confirm extensive long-distance exchange. Trade with Dilmun (Bahrain) and Magan (Oman) is also documented in Mesopotamian texts of this period.
Onset of Ghaggar-Hakra river changes and urban decline1900 BCE
Ghaggar-Hakra river system, Pakistan/India
Climate aridification and shifts in monsoon patterns cause progressive drying of the Ghaggar-Hakra paleochannel (proposed identification with the Vedic Sarasvati). Reduced water availability triggers settlement decline in the urban core and a shift to smaller rural settlements, marking the beginning of the Late Harappan localization phase.
Sources
- Hand-drawn polygon
- Kenoyer, J.M. (1998) Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization
- Possehl, G.L. (2002) The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective
- Allchin, B. & Allchin, R. (1982) The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan
- Wheeler, Sir Mortimer (1968) The Indus Civilization (3rd ed.)
- Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991) The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western India
- Possehl, Gregory L., ed. (1993) Harappan Civilization: A Recent Perspective (rev. ed.)
- Mughal, M. Rafique (1990) The Harappan Settlement Systems and Patterns in the Greater Indus Valley
- Shaffer, Jim G. and Diane A. Lichtenstein (1999) Migration, Philology and South Asian Archaeology